US: High Tunnel, open-field production systems compared for lettuce, tomato

Scientists in western Washington use crop enterprise budgets to evaluate production practices

In the mild coastal climate of western Washington, agricultural growers are learning more about the advantages of growing popular fresh-market vegetables in high tunnel production systems. High tunnels can offer many benefits for delicate vegetable crops, including protection from environmental stresses such as hail, frost, excessive rainfall, and high wind. Despite these obvious benefits, the use of high tunnels for growing both lettuce and tomato is currently limited in the region--estimated to be only 50 acres for tomato and less than 20 acres for lettuce. According to Washington State University researchers Suzette Galinato and Carol Miles, the adoption rate for using high tunnels is low in the region due to a lack of in-depth knowledge about specific high tunnel production practices for tomato and lettuce, the high tunnel structures best suited to each crop, potential returns, and the capital investment needed to initiate and maintain high tunnel production.

Results of the scenarios showed that, for lettuce, the labor cost per square foot of growing area was found to be six times greater in a high tunnel than in the open field. For tomato, labour costs were ten times greater in a high tunnel than in the open field. Total labor cost comprised more than 50% of the total production costs of lettuce and tomato in both the high tunnel and open-field systems. Given the base crop yield and average price, economic analysis showed that growing lettuce in the open field is 43% more profitable than in the high tunnel, while in contrast, high tunnel-grown tomato was three times more profitable than open-field tomato production.

Galinato and Miles' new study published in HortTechnology contains specific information about effective regional production practices for tomato and lettuce, variable and fixed costs of production, and potential returns based on defined assumptions about high tunnel or open-field production of each crop.The researchers convened focus groups of three to four growers in western Washington between April and November 2011. The groups were then tasked with developing crop enterprise budgets. Each focus group addressed one crop (lettuce or tomato) and one production system (open field or high tunnel). "We selected the focus group participants based on their experience in growing lettuce or tomato in open field or high tunnel, and their management practices," Galinato said. To develop each crop enterprise budget scenario, the groups designed a hypothetical farm situation; the types of inputs were itemized based on the production system.
"The expected marketable yields of tomato and lettuce are higher when grown in a high tunnel as compared with the open field," the authors said. "However, the higher crop yield achieved in a high tunnel was not sufficient to offset the increased costs of production for lettuce."

The researchers noted that expected crop yield should not be the primary driving force in choosing a high tunnel productions system over the open-field system. "Instead," they suggested, "crop yield in addition to market price of the crop as well as production costs must all be taken into account when examining the profitability for any crop and production system."

The complete study and abstract are available on the ASHS HortTechnologyelectronic journal web site: http://horttech.ashspublications.org/content/23/4/453.abstract

Italy: Hydroponic Cultivation of Tablegrapes

by: F.lli Lo Giudice (Gela - Sicily)

"Soilless cultivation of table-grapes means we can start producing much quicker than with normal techniques. Because it is a new experience, we are cautious, but we believe in this type of cultivation," says the F.lli Lo Giudice company located in Gela (Sicily), which has two soil-less cultivation modules with a pearlite and coir substrate for tomatoes (two consecutive seasons) and table grapes.

"In regards to grapes, we have started cultivating the Victoria, Black Magic and seedless varieties this way only this year. It is a little known method that we are trying out thanks to the technical and scientific assistance of Dr. Carlo Gambino and professor Rosario di Lorenzo from the University of Palermo," explains Antonio Lo Giudice (in the photo). The project is entirely funded by the company.

"At the moment, Victoria and Black Magic are the better known on the market, but we believe that seedless grapes will become more popular in the future, especially in Northern Europe."

 

"We also produce classic Italia table grapes under tents, and we cover the vines in order to hasten the campaign, so that we can have excellent table grapes in August. Obviously we use all of the suitable cultivation techniques to reach the best quality."

The entire production is marketed by the company, "Therefore we try to diversify the production period too, so that we can stay on the market longer and with more products. We must say that the early grape market is the most profitable."

The soil-less table grape campaign began in March and started producing in July, a little later than usual.

"In March we also planted some vines that are now lignifying for the campaign that will start in December. It will be the first year we will sell this type of cultivation. We will be able to make an assessment in May 2014."

As regards traditional table grapes, and the Italia variety in particular, it was already possible to harvest before August 15th. Nonetheless, the company waited because of the period of stall in both commerce and harvesting. "We are a month and a half late with respect to our usual production. Of course this meant higher management costs, because we had to cover the vineyard again to protect it against bad weather."

Antonio explains why he thinks this year started badly also at a price level. "It is all due to a delay of the Victoria variety, because it was at least a month late and reached an excellent quality. The problem was we had both Victoria at low prices and Italia, whose price might barely cover production costs. The fluctuation in prices affects both producers and consumers."

 

Antonio concludes that "growers have to deal with weather and production problems as well as cultivation mistakes because they are part of the job. The main challenge is at a commercial level though: a minimum threshold must be guaranteed to producers and all of the non-essential passages that still exist between producers and consumers should be avoided."

source : http://www.hortidaily.com/article/4527/Italy-Hydroponic-cultivation-of-tablegrapes

AZUD WATERTECH DWE

The all-in-one solution for water supply in emergency situations.
The mobile drinking water plant is designed for the immediate supply of drinking water in emergency  and energetic self-sufficient and can be completed with other options like generating set, all-terrain trailer and spare parts, water deposit for inlet and outlet and residual chlorine dosing.http://ow.ly/m1S4e
source : http://www.azud.com/en/treatment/enews/azud_watertech_one_of_the_most_highlight_products_in_the_isdef_2013_fair.aspx#sthash.VWmTJ8c5.dpuf

Tomatoes Grown in a Large Scale Greenhouse.

AZUD WATERTECH DWE FR

Take a closer look at water treatment for your greenhouse operation

In Hort Americas latest newsletter, an interesting and informational article with Jerry van Kampen and Vic Mirabella from Priva North America on greenhouse irrigation and water treatment can be found. The article, written by David Kuack, shares some useful information on water quality, treatment and analysis.

By David Kuack

Jerry van Kampen, inside sales support, and Vic Mirabella, sales account manager, at Priva North America Inc. sat down with Hort Americas to talk about greenhouse water issues and water treatment.

1. Is there any one water source that is better for greenhouse irrigation than others?

van Kampen: Rain water is the best source of water for the greenhouse because it doesn’t have any pathogens or elements that you might not want for your crop. It is a very clean source of water.
Some city water comes from lakes and is relatively clean and easy to work with. Some city water might come from wells and it might have some hardness to it. A municipal water source may be the only choice for some growers. Municipal water is treated to some extent so that growers have a relatively clean starting point in regards to a water source for irrigation.

2. What are the most common issues that cause greenhouse growers to look at installing a water treatment system?

Mirabella: The water source is one of the major issues that most growers have to look at for installing water treatment. If you don’t have a good clean water source, whether it is municipal, lake, pond, whatever that source is, if it’s not good enough for your crop, you are going to need to look at some kind of water treatment to get it to an acceptable level in order to grow your crops.
The two most common problems that growers encounter are bicarbonates and pathogens. Pathogens can include something as simple as algae or something that is plant specific. The other thing that can occur with a water source is a high level of calcium or some other element that can be toxic to the plants.

A grower who is recirculating his water will want to keep tabs on his water treatment system to be sure that there are no pathogens in the recirculation system. In this case, he should be testing his water at least weekly. Photo courtesy of Priva North America Inc. 

3. How much does the type of crop, impact the need, to install a water treatment system?

van Kampen: Depending on the crop, the type of finish quality a grower wants and a crop’s disease resistance are going to determine how aggressive or how sophisticated a water treatment system a grower will to need to install.
The type of crop, starter plants or plugs vs. finished plants, and the length of the production cycle also influence the type of water treatment system. If a grower is producing tomatoes for 10 months, after about eight months he really doesn’t care if there are pathogens in the water anymore because the crop is basically finished. All that is left to do is harvest the fruit on the plants. For that first eight months the grower wants to make sure that the tomato plants are healthy in order to produce the quality fruit he wants to harvest.
If a grower is producing a vegetable crop where the plants are being grown for months, the grower is more likely to recycle his water. This is where he really needs some type of disinfection to kill pathogens so that if there is a disease outbreak it’s not spread throughout the entire greenhouse. It stays where it started.
Mirabella: Water is pretty much the lifeblood of the plants. Most growers in Canada have a recirculatory type system. It’s the same water being used over and over so if there is a disease pathogen in that water it’s going to be spread throughout the greenhouse and eventually work its way through the whole crop. Depending on the type of irrigation system that you have it’s going to impact the type of water treatment system you are going to install.
Normally when growers get into a recirculation system then water treatment usually becomes a higher priority. It comes down to crop and disease resistance. If a grower has a crop, if at the end of the week the water is going to be dumped, and the grower is going to start again with fresh water, he may not look at a high end water treatment system. Because the grower is only keeping the water for a short period of time, he may look at a less cost effective system. If a grower is going to continually reuse the water like with a floating pond for lettuce or the crop cycle is so long that the water has to be in the irrigation system for a long time, then a high end treatment system may be warranted. With a floating pond system there isn’t an opportunity to drain the ponds, disinfect them, refill them and adjust the nutrient levels because those would all add to the cost of production.

4. How much does length of the production cycle impact the type of water treatment system a grower should consider installing?

van Kampen: It also has to do with, at what stage the crop is at. When you are talking about starter plants they are prone to be more susceptible to pathogens and less tolerant to high salt levels. With younger plants you are going to need better water or you are going to need someone who knows how to make that water better.

5. How often should a grower have his water tested?

Mirabella: Many growers water test on a regular basis. That is probably crop dependent and also what a grower is looking for in the water. If you have a bad source of water with a lot of bicarbonates or heavy metals, you probably want to keep tabs on your water at the pretreatment system. In that case, you should be testing on a weekly basis if not more often.
If you are recirculating water then you want to keep tabs on your water treatment or water sterilization to be sure that there are no pathogens in the recirculation system. Again in this case, you are probably going to test your water weekly. During the summer when a grower is watering more often, he should consider testing twice a week to keep tabs on what’s in his water, how stable is everything in the water, and what is happening with the water.
Water testing frequency will also depend on the crop you are growing and the age of the crop. If you are propagating in a substrate, then you are probably going to use some type of misting system and injecting a minimal amount of fertilizer. What you are basically trying to do is keep the plant alive, keeping the substrate wet so the roots don’t dry out or get water logged. If you are using city water, you are not worried as much about pathogens. But you are more concerned with what is in the water. Does the water need to be treated to remove or reduce bicarbonates? Does the water need to be treated to lower some element that is in the city water that is too high and will damage your plants?

6. What factors should a grower consider when trying to determine the capacity of the water treatment system?

Mirabella: It comes down to the amount of water used in an irrigation cycle. You don’t want to run out of clean water. You also want to look at what is the capacity of your water treatment system. How long does it take to treat enough water to have a day’s worth of irrigation water?
I don’t know if oversizing is necessarily a bad thing for some growers. If a grower is not careful as to how much water he is using in an irrigation cycle or an irrigation day vs. the capacity of his water treatment unit, he could run into under sizing issues. A grower could come up short on having enough clean water for an irrigation cycle.
When looking at something like an ultraviolet system, we look at what is the maximum capacity of water that can be treated and how much can be treated in a day. A grower should look at the limitations of a water treatment unit and use that as a foot print to determine what size operation it supports. Once that size is exceeded another unit is needed.
A 10-acre tomato facility is a fairly substantial size greenhouse. Even if a grower could push it a unit further than that, would he be comfortable knowing if that unit was to fail, a large production area is going to be affected? At that point it becomes a risk management strategy to consider breaking down the operation into smaller chunks with more than one treatment unit. If one unit goes down there is a second unit that can fill in. There may be some redundancy, but if something catastrophic happens to one treatment unit or one area of production, it’s not going to wipe out the whole crop.
Growers are very frugal with their money so they want to stretch every dollar as far as possible. Fortunately, a lot of growers for at least irrigation supply units and fertilizer injector units consider the scenario if they only have one and it goes down then their whole operation is not getting water or fertilizer. By installing two smaller units, should one unit need maintenance or repair, a grower is not completely out of water and can at least rely on the second unit to irrigate his plants.

7. When installing a water treatment system, what factors do most greenhouse growers overlook?

van Kampen: As this applies to filters, what normally happens is that a grower will look at the filter spec sheets. The manufacturers will provide best case scenarios. If the spec sheet for a filter indicates it will handle 80 gallons per minute that is basically when the water has already been filtered through it.
If I am buying a filter that says it will handle 80 gallons per minute and I am taking water out of a stream that has a lot of particulate matter in it, I will probably be lucky to get ¼ of that amount of water through it. In this situation the grower is going to need to oversize his filter system to take care of the situation. Even if a filter is sized to handle 80 gallons per minute, if the water is relatively dirty then a grower may have to quadruple the size of the filter or maybe do the filtering in steps. The first step filters out everything that is a certain size and then the next filter will take out even smaller particles so that the filters don’t get plugged up.
Mirabella: No matter what filter or water treatment system a grower purchases, there is maintenance associated with it. The equipment only works at its optimum when the maintenance is done on a regular schedule. Some growers may think because they have a filter they don’t have to do anything else. Most water treatment system equipment has a maintenance schedule and it should be adhered to strictly to make sure the system operates at its optimal capacity.
For more: Priva North America Inc., (903) 562-7351; http://www.priva.ca.
David Kuack is a freelance technical writer in Fort Worth, Texas; dkuack@gmail.com.
For more information on Hort Americas:

Hort Americas, LLC
Chris Higgins
Skype: chigginsconsultant
T: +1 469 532 2261
E: chiggins@hortamericas.com
www.hortamericas.com

Publication date: 11/28/2013

source : http://www.hortidaily.com/article/4973/Take-a-closer-look-at-water-treatment-for-your-greenhouse-operation

Will greenhouse-grown vegetables replace ornamentals in U.S. greenhouses?

Pathogens, spray regulations and labor issues should be considered before growing vegetables in a greenhouse:
Kalamazoo, Mich., was once known as the celery capital of the world. Today, greenhouses growing ornamental crops are a common sight throughout that city. But could a shift be underway to transform Kalamazoo and many other cities back to their vegetable-growing roots? Some ornamental greenhouse growers throughout the United States have been re-entering the vegetable production business to fill empty greenhouses during non-peak production times for ornamental purposes. Greenhouse-grown produce might be able to capture higher prices at the market compared to their field-grown equivalent, depending on availability of product from other local producers and producers in other areas of the country. Michigan State University Extension recommends that producers consider many factors before converting ornamental production space to vegetable production.

While common diseases may be the same between vegetables and ornamentals including Botrytis, Pythium and Rhizoctonia, products labeled for their management often differ for edible crops. For example, Subdue MAXX, which provides control of Pythium and Phytophthora for ornamentals, turf, and non-bearing fruits and nuts, contains the same active ingredient (mefenoxam) as Ridomil Gold, which is labeled for numerous fruits and vegetables. While containing the same active ingredient, sprays applied to edible crops may have different re-entry intervals and have instructions about spray and harvest timing. Furthermore, some sprays labeled for field-grown vegetables can be used in the greenhouse, unless the label specifically states that spraying in a controlled environment is prohibited. Generally, there has been a shift in regulation over the last couple of years that chemicals are being labeled to be crop-specific instead of whether they are being sprayed on plants grown in a greenhouse or out in the field. It is critical to always follow the label instructions.

In addition, edible crops should be separated from ornamental crops to not only prevent accidental applications of non-labeled chemicals to your vegetables, but to prevent disease spread between them. For example, thrips feeding on tomato plants may carry tomato spotted wilt virus to vulnerable ornamental crops in an adjacent house. For more information on diseases between ornamental and vegetable crops, see the Greenhouse Product News article “Crossing Over: Vegetable Diseases in the Ornamental Greenhouse.” A 2013 guide for insect, disease and nematode control for commercial vegetables can be bought at the MSU Extension Bookstore.

When considering a new vegetable crop, be sure to also calculate the increased labor expenses associated with finding and hiring employees to harvest the crop. Especially in today’s climate, healthcare is a hot-button issue with agricultural businesses. If a business is close but still under the threshold of 50 fulltime - equivalent employees, the hours worked by seasonal employees may push businesses to offer healthcare meeting the criteria of the Affordable Care Act to all fulltime employees. Therefore, labor-intensive crops may have wider implications on other aspects of the business.

In Part 2 of this series, MSU Extension will discuss production expenses and challenges and food safety regulation with growing vegetables in a greenhouse. We will also state advantages of entering the greenhouse vegetable market.

This article was published by Michigan State University Extension. For more information, visit http://www.msue.msu.edu. To contact an expert in your area, visit http://expert.msue.msu.edu, or call 888-MSUE4MI (888-678-3464).

Infographic: Visualizing the global land rush

Why we’re asking Coke, Pepsi and ABF to make sure their sugar doesn’t lead to land grabs.

October 16th, 2013 | by Victoria Marzilli - 

Explaining the links that connect the sugar in your Coke or Pepsi to the global scandal of land grabs that kick poor farmers off their land can be a long and winding story. That’s why we enlisted the help of the infographic design agency, Killer Infographics, to turn all of our data into one comprehensive picture of why we’re campaigning to stop land grabs! The results speak for themselves. Check it out, get the facts, take action and spread the word! Use your consumer power to speak up and tell the world’s biggest companies in the sugar industry to set a zero tolerance policy against land grabs. - See more at:

http://firstperson.oxfamamerica.org/2013/10/16/visualizing-the-global-land-rush/#sthash.dORgApEo.dpuf

Eco-friendly steps can control stem weevil

In the early stage, breaking of stem at apical region because of hallow pseudo-stem caused by grubs feeding is common symptom.

The National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) has said that banana stem weevil damage has been found in all banana-growing areas of Tamil Nadu, including Tiruchi, Thanjavur, Karur, Perambalur, and Pudukottai districts and suggested eco-friendly steps to control the pest.

All commercial cultivars are susceptible to the pest, the NRCB has said. Jelly exudation on the banana stem indicates weevil and grub activity inside the stem. This is the early symptom of the weevil attack. Depending on the crop stage, the jelly exudation varies. In the early stage, breaking of stem at apical region because of hallow pseudo-stem caused by grubs feeding is common symptom.

Instead of waiting for the early and late stage symptoms, the stem weevil activity in a field can be monitored by laying banana longitudinal split traps and if the weevils are attracted to the traps, control measures have to be taken up immediately, said B. Padmanaban, Principal Scientist (Entomology), NRCB, in a communication.

The female weevil selects about five months old banana plant and lays eggs inside the leaf sheath through the slits cut on leaf sheath. Before developing into pupae (resting stage), the grub makes a square hole on the outermost leaf sheath and makes a pupal case in the adjacent leaf sheath. The adult weevil emerges through the hole made by the larva. The circular holes on the leaf sheath indicate the damage caused by grubs.

The banana stem weevil can be controlled by adopting integrated pest management, including application of insecticides and monitoring banana weevil activity in the plantations by placing banana stem traps. Longitudinal split traps, treated with pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana solution developed by NRCB, can be placed to attract the weevils, Mr. Padmanaban said.

Once the banana plant in infested with weevil, stem injection is the only way to control the pest. However, the injection should not be given after the emergence of bunches. For more details, contact The Director, National Research Centre for Banana, Thayanur (Post), Tiruchi-620 102 or Dr. Padmanaban over 9442359253.
source : http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/ecofriendly-steps-can-control-stem-weevil/article5158977.ece

Mixrite Medicator

DESCRIPTION:

MixRite injectors are used to add exact dosages of medications, vitamins, minerals and vaccinations into livestock watering systems. When used with cleaning agents, MixRite assists in disinfecting and cleaning lines and installations.

Comments: MixRite's main advantages are:

• Easy to install
• No electricity needed
• Easy to adjust dosing percentage
• Replaceable seals
• Works at very low flow rate
• Easy to field repair
• Highly Chemical resistant
• Perfect blending
• Highly resistant to UV Working Pressure: 0.2 – 8
• Chemical Resistance: Standard
• Dosage Rate: 0.4% - 4%
• ON OFF System: No [Air Release]
• Chemical Bypass: Standard
• Coupling: 3/4"
• Thread Type: BSPT
• Max Pressure Loss: 1.4 Bar
• Min Pressure Loss: 0.2 Bar
• Flow Rate Range: 30-2500 L/H [8 to 660 Gal/H] Gal/H
• Weight: 2.8 pounds
• Color: Grey
• Dimensions: 22" X 7.27"
• Water Pressure: 0.2-8 Bar [2.9 to 120 PSI]

Overview:

• MixRite is a water driven proportioning injector for pumping an additive into a water line at a consistent induction rate over varying water pressure and flow rates.
• Model: 2504 – P04
• Min Injection Per Hour: 0.12 l/h [0.03 GPH]
• Max Injection Per Hour: 100 l/h [GPH 26.5]
• Seal Kit: Free seal kit with each pump.

Metzerplas Projects

Metzerplas’ leading project department specializes in developing a large variety of advanced irrigation and agriculture enterprises.Metzerplas’ project staff includes well-experienced engineers and agronomists to design and establish the project tailored to your needs. Metzerplas projects’ aim is to give the costumer professional and reliable assistance adapted to your project demands from design throughout and including construction. The Metzerplas projects construction team provides trained engineers and team managers with wide experience in diverse types of irrigation and agricultural projects worlwide. Metzerplas projects specializes in initiating turn-key projects that include general and detailed designing, construction, setting up and commission before delivery.

Each Metzerplas projects include:

• Professional customer assistance from the first inquiry to project delivery.
• Project feasibility study includes data-collection assistance, data analyzing and design recommendations.
• Finding the best agricultural solution according to customer’s needs.
• Designing project layouts according to soil, water and climate conditions.
• Examining proper crop culturing system, such as open field, screen covered, or greenhouse.
• Choosing optimal irrigation method (drip, sprinklers and irrigation machines).
• Designing project complimentry facilities (processing, and packaging lines, cooling houses, etc.).
• General and detailed designing of project aspects (engineering, hydraulic and agricultural).
• General and detailed designing of project water supply (catchments, storage and pipelines).
• Designing supply and setting up efficient pumping station for water supply from rivers, wells and reservoirs.
• Designing and establishing water-treatment systems for irrigation and potable water.
• Designing precise and reliable fertigation system according to field demands.
• Designing irrigation and fertigation automation and control, fitted to crop and customer requirements.
• Packaging and transporting project components for efficient unloading and assembling at the site.
• Providing professional technical and agronomic guidance of project managers and workers.

Metzerplas Projects provide wide experience in a large variety of agro-technologies and crops, in Israel and world wide:

• All types of field crops (vegetables, grains, fodders, industrial crops, etc.).
• Orchard and fruit plantation (citrus, vineyards, deciduous, avocado, coffee, etc.).
• Bio-diesel and ethanol crops (sugar cane, jatropha, castor oil and palm).
• Greenhouses for vegetables, herbs and flowers
• Screen houses for trees, vegetables, herbs and flowers.
• Municipal and private landscaping and gardening (public parks, airports, golf courses, soccer fields, etc.).

Metzerplas Ltd.

Company Profile

METZERPLAS COOPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION Ltd., is located in Israel’s central district, and is owned by Kibbutz Metzer (75%) and Gaon Agro Industries Ltd. (25%). Metzerplas was established in 1970, and since has accumulated extensive expertise and know-how in development, design, production, marketing, and installation of agricultural and landscaping products and turnkey irrigation projects.

Major Activities

Experienced in both production and actual application of these products, we are attentive and sensitive to the requirements and requests of local manufacturers of dripper lines and are able to supply the technological solutions and backup needed to successfully compete in their markets.

 

Main Products

* High speed production lines for both cylindrical and flat emitters

* Compensated and non-compensated drippers

* Irrigation systems and drip laterals

* PE pipes and fittings for agriculture, electricity, & industry

* S.P. piping designed for plumbing and water at extreme temperatures and pressures

International Standards

Metzerplas was granted and maintains the ISO 9002 certificate since 1997. Metzerplas production and service operate under strict ISO 900 1: 2008 Standards.

Subsidiaries

Metzerplas Irrigacion – 100% ownership – Markets in Argentine .

Dura-Line (Israel) – 100% ownership – Produces and markets telecommunication tubes and conduits in Israel.

Metzerplas Australia Pty. Ltd. – 100% ownership – Markets in Australia.

Irrigator Ukraine Ltd. – 51% ownership – Markets in Ukraine.

Main Products

Cylindrical and Flat, Compensated and Non-Compensated, inline and online Drippers – used mainly for irrigation in agriculture, landscaping and gardening.

Designing full irrigation systems for agriculture.

SP pipes - designed for plumbing and water at extreme temperatures and pressures.

Telecommunication and electric pipes

Building high speed production lines for both cylindrical and flat emitters

US (CA): Bacterial community composition on field-grown lettuce

Researchers from 'University of California - Davis Campus' conducted a survey on spatio-temporal variation in bacterial community composition on field-grown lettuce.

Even though the microbial ecology is a scientific topic very important, the information regarding the bacterial community on plant leaf surface, their composition and how it changes according to the geographical and seasonal conditions is quite poor.

For the survey, 106 samples of Romaine lettuce were collected from production regions in California and Arizona from June 2009 to February 2010.

The microbial analyses showed that the total bacterial count averaged between 105 and 106 CFUs per gram leaf, whereas counts of cultivable bacteria were on average one (summer season) or two (winter season) orders of magnitude lower.

Bacteria were identified by using PCR analysis to amplify bacterial 16S rRna gene sequences. The DNA sequence analysis showed that Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes andActinobacteria were the most abundant and representative phyla; while, at genus level,Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Massilia, Arthrobacter and Pantoea were the most consistently found across samples, thus highlighting that they represented the phyllospere microbiota on lettuce.

The foliar presence of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vitians, the causal agent of bacterial leaf spot of lettuce, resulted positively correlated with the presence of bacteria from Alkanindigesgenus, while negatively correlated with the presence of bacteria from Bacillus, Erwinia andPantoea genus.

The survey showed that both the geographic area and the climatic conditions, such as the seasonal variation and storm dust period, affected significantly the differences in bacterial community found in the analysed lettuce samples.

The scientists concluded that, being one of the largest surveys on leaf surface microbiology, this study could be a tool to better understand the causes of the spatial and temporal variation in bacterial community composition lettuce leaves.

For more information:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22534606

Source : www.freshplaza.com

OCMIS - Irrigation

 

Structural Concrete: Theory & Design-Free Download

http://civilengineerblog.com/structural-concrete-theory-design-free-download/

30 CM IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FRESH WATER AND SEWAGE WATER !

Folks , Leaving the water tap opened for forever waiting for the water to be hot or cold , or preparing your tooth paste … etc .

Leads to a disaster , all the clean fresh water from the tap is converted to sewage water within seconds ! , imagine it , its clean and fresh .

You didn’t use at all , sewage water is a huge load on most countries , it is contaminated and dirty enough to kill people , YES most countries through the sewage water into the ocean or just use it in agriculture , it kills fish , plants & animals .
Have you ever thought that the fruits you are eating may be irrigated using sewage water ?!

we have to be more careful , water is the most valuable resource on earth , it can’t be replaced with any other resource , oil can be replaced with coal or solar energy or whatever , but water is the SOURCE OF LIFE .

Use it , don’t waste it !

Starting a Rose Bush and other plants from a Cutting (Slip)

source: http://fredgonsowskigardenhome.com

Posted on June 17, 2011by fredgonsowskigardenhome

Starting a Rose Bush from a Slip

For as long as I can remember, my Grandmother, Mother, and Aunts were always starting new plants from cuttings (slips). I think they called them slips because, they tore the piece of plant material from the donor plant, instead of cutting it off. They wanted a piece of plant skin, on the slip, they called it the tail. Well, for what ever reason they did it that way, they were able to start a large assortment of different plants, besides rose bushes. Aunt Anna started a nice collection of Blue Spruce trees, along with Roses, Euonymus, and Lilacs, that I still have. My Mother started many Roses, as well as Azaleas, Blue Spruce, Spiraea, and Hydrangea, to name a few. My maternal Grandmother was soo good at it, that she had many odd bushes and trees, and I know she could get a broom handle to root, if she put her mind to it. So this is what those Gardening Gals did…

Step 1 ..In the late Spring to Early Summer (Ma says, “if you try this too late in the growing season, there is less of a chance of this working“) find a plant (bush) that you would like to grow another one of. On that bush (in this case a Rose) look for a kind of new growth branch that grew off of a main leader, and can fit under a glass jar (see illustration 1). Don’t cut, but rip off the branch so you get the “tail” (see illustration 2). If for any reason this branch has flower buds, cut the flower off.

Step 2 ..Plant the Rose (or any other kind of bush/tree slip) in a shady spot in your garden, under a bush (etc), where it only gets filtered light. Not hot or direct light. Cover the slip with a jar (mini greenhouse), and make sure you water it every few days (see illustration 3). Moisture should build up under the jar. Over the next few weeks, if it takes, it will still look healthy, and even produce some extra growth. Don’t uncover or move it until the following Spring, when it has gone through one Winter, and came back to life. At that time dig it up, and move your new plant to its new permanent location.

Agro Shelef: Replacing Chemical Pesticides With Natural Anti-Pest Vegetable Oils

BY AYA EPHRATI, NOCAMELS · JULY 2, 2013 ·

An Israeli agro-tech company has come up with a novel solution to diminish the use of chemical pesticides on fruits and vegetables: Spray them with pest-fighting vegetable oils!

Tamar-Tech, by the company Agro Shelef, is a plant pest control system that consists of a blend of oils that contain natural plant protecting elements. These emulsions are sprayed on agricultural plants in greenhouses or in fields.

Related articles

• Israeli Pesticide Company That Fights Pests With Bumble Bees Now Launches In India
• Researchers Use Bee Hormones As Pesticide

“We use the natural pest-fighting ability of plants to create Tamar-Tech,” Founder Almog Yaish tells NoCamels. “To take an extreme for example, peaches contain cyanide in their pits. This is because they [have evolved] to protect themselves against threats such as squirrels. So too do other plants and fruits also contain many different ways to block their ‘enemies.’”

Reducing chemicals by up to 80 percent

“We basically collected a lot of different oils and chemicals like this from different plants, found out what they each did. Then we created a formula that balances the different actions,” Yaish explains. “A key advantage of using vegetable oils is that pests cannot easily develop a resistance to them.”

The emulsions can both physically stop pests by acting as a poison (that is not harmful to humans), as well as dissuade them from approaching plants in the first place, because they don’t like the thin layer of oil that covers the plant’s surface.

According to Agro Shelef, this thin layer can simply be rinsed off with water by consumers. Agro Shelef believes  Tamar-Tech has the potential to reduce the use of chemical pesticides by up to 80 percent. Despite this, it hasn’t been easy to get the product off the ground.

“Our biggest challenge has been starting a small company in an industry full of giants. The pesticide industry is similar to the pharmaceutical industry: huge companies with big budgets. And no one questions the efficiency and nature of their products,” explained Yaish.

“Making people ingest less chemicals”

“We had to go and convince farmer by farmer by showing them demonstrations of the product in action. They were almost always surprised to see that a natural product can be so efficient. In the Negev [Israel's desert region], we have managed to get into the tomato growing industry, and we are having a real, measurable impact on the amount of [chemicals] Israeli consumers are ingesting.”

Yaish and his partner, Uri Yaffe, hope to expand into foreign markets in the future, mostly in Europe and North America. “We want to take our knowledge and experience and put it to use abroad,” said Yaish. “We are now looking for strategic investors who will help us to create offices and a viable plan to market the product outside of Israel.”

Tamar-Tech was co-developed by Shelef Agro-Technologies Ltd., the Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research, and the Agricultural Research Organization – the research arm of the Ministry of Agriculture. Development of emulsion formulas began in 2007, and the emulsion machines were designed by the Volcani Institute. Agro Shelef is currently self-funded by Yaish and Yaffe.

source: http://nocamels.com/2013/07/agro-shelef-replacing-chemical-pesticides-with-natural-anti-pest-vegetable-oils/?utm_source=NoCamels+List&utm_campaign=55729b2797-NC26.6.13&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_1f30057f3e-55729b2797-311089173

Photo: Fresh beef tomatoes by Bigstock

Looking for a Team Leader/Irrigation Engineer - Urgent requirement - Apply Now

Looking for a Team Leader/Irrigation Engineer - Urgent requirement - Apply Now

RENARDET S.A. & Partners Consulting Engineers L.L.C. is looking for a Team Leader for the Reconstruction of main irrigation canals in a project financed by IsDB.

The project consists in the rehabilitation of main canals plus the construction of new secondary canals for a total length of 600 km around, with related structures. 

http://www.linkedin.com/groupAnswers?viewQuestionAndAnswers=&discussionID=254612793&gid=734247&commentID=-1&trk=view_job&fromEmail=&ut=3HbFA0Qj1E6BQ1

Looking for a Senior Irrigation Engineer - Urgent requirement - Apply Now

Looking for a Senior Irrigation Engineer - Urgent requirement - Apply Now

RENARDET S.A. & Partners Consulting Engineers L.L.C. is looking for a Senior Irrigation Engineer for the Reconstruction of main irrigation canals in a project financed by IsDB.

http://www.linkedin.com/groupAnswers?viewQuestionAndAnswers=&discussionID=254612613&gid=734247&commentID=-1&trk=view_job&fromEmail=&ut=1QNMUXfV1E6BQ1

5 Strategies To Maximize Smart Irrigation Month

5 Strategies To Maximize Smart Irrigation Month

Farm Irrigation Planning & Management

Exhibitors List

Exhibitors List

2 Reasons to Focus on Droplet Size & Soil Texture When Selecting a Sprinkler

You can your rotate crops and alter your farming practices but unless you pack up and move your farm you can’t change your soil texture. Although there are sprinklers that claim they are crop specific, the reality is that proper sprinkler selection is much more complex than simply determining how much water a certain crop generally needs.

If you’ve recently taken a look at our pivot products literature you may have noticed our inclusion of the soil triangle. Our triangle (shown left) includes black dots representative of basic droplet sizes and based on prevalent field soil texture – going from large, medium to small – to help give you an idea of what deflector or pad you should select for your sprinkler.

Why do we include this?

Soil texture is an important soil characteristic that drives crop production and field management. While there are various considerations to take when selecting a sprinkler, there are two big reasons to put priority on droplet size and soil texture.

Application Intensity

As water droplets are distributed over soil, the structure and infiltration rate of the soil become altered. To keep soil close to its pre-irrigation state, you can distribute water with low application intensity to reduce the kinetic impact of droplets. Select an adequate droplet size according to your soil texture to help it maintain its structure. Droplets that are too large and have a higher kinetic energy can cause surface sealing and lead to erosion or inefficient irrigation. Higher application intensity also runs the risk of permanently damaging soil’s structure by rearranging its composition. In general, tighter soils benefit from smaller droplets while looser soils require larger droplets.

Application Rate

Water infiltrates soil’s pores at varying rates depending on texture. If you have dense clay soils, then water will slowly seep down to the root zones while sandy soils will quickly absorb water. If application rates exceed soil infiltration rates, overwatering and runoff are likely to occur. Since infiltration and percolation rates vary by soil type, the application rate of water you need for a crop planted in sandy soil will differ from the rate needed if you plant the same crop in silt loam, for example. You typically need a higher rate when irrigating in sandy soils even when a crops’ water requirements are the same. A professionally designed sprinkler package will provide the right application rate to help preserve proper soil structure and meet the needs of your crop.

——————————————-
Sources

 

Posted on May 23, 2013 by nicole (http://www.senninger.com/2013/05/23/2-reasons-to-focus-on-droplet-size-soil-texture-when-selecting-a-sprinkler/)

Cornell University Agronomy Fact Sheet #29 “Soil Texture”http://water.rutgers.edu/Rain_Gardens/factsheet29.pdf

The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation “Soil and Water Relationships”http://www.noble.org/ag/soils/soilwaterrelationships/

Soil Quality for Environmental Health “Infiltration” http://soilquality.org/indicators/infiltration.html

USAID launches agriculture innovation programme

May 30, 2013

The US Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) launched the Agricultural Innovation Program to expand the use of modern technologies in Pakistan's agricultural sector.

"Boosting Pakistan's economy is one of our top assistance priorities. Getting new and improved technologies and practices into farmers' hands in the next few years will play a major role in helping Pakistan address agriculture needs that will enhance economic development in the country," said USAID Country Director Jonathan M. Conly. USAID's Agriculture Innovation Program aims to increase agricultural productivity and quality that will improve the quality for consumers and help create more jobs on farms throughout Pakistan.

Currently, Pakistan's agricultural sector is a key part of Pakistan's economy but it is not growing at a pace that meets its potential. "Pakistan's agricultural productivity has fallen behind comparable countries with similar agro-ecologies," said Thomas Lumpkin, Director General of CIMMYT. "There is a tremendous potential for growth, but we must act now."

Shahid Masood, Member (Plant Sciences), PARC, said: "The project will develop a science-driven model to improve the livelihoods of Pakistan's agricultural producers, and enable economic growth. The international and Pakistani partners involved in this effort are dedicated to the research, collaboration and investments that will ensure success."

Through this new four-year $30 million project, USAID will sponsor research to encourage adoption of new technologies in agriculture. To date, 800,000 rural families have increased yields and started earning better incomes through USAID programs. News Network International

source : Zaraimedia Team May 30th, 2013 News

 

Controlling Powdery Mildew with Homemade Spray

If you are seeing powdery-looking patches on the foliage of your plants, you most likely have a case of the very common powdery mildew fungal disease. Here is a simple spray for controlling the spread of the fungus. It won't get rid of the fungus on leaves that already have it, but it will prevent it from spreading to the rest of the plant.

Ingredients:

    1 gallon of water

    1 tablespoon of baking soda

    1 tablespoon of vegetable oil

    1 tablespoon of dishwashing liquid

Mix the ingredients together and add them to a spray bottle. Spray your plants weekly, preferably on overcast days to prevent it from burning the foliage. 

source : http://pakagri.blogspot.com/2013/05/controlling-powdery-mildew-with.html

EC Measuring Device

"Irrigation - Water Management, Pollution and Alternative Strategies" ed. by Iker García-Garizábal and Raphael Abrahao

InTeO | 2012 | ISBN: 9535104216 9789535104216 | 244 pages | PDF | 10 MB

This book covers different issues and problematics of irrigated agriculture: from water use in different irrigated systems to pollution generated by irrigated agriculture. Moreover, the book also includes chapters that deal with new possibilities of improving irrigation techniques through the reuse of drainage water and wastewater, helping to reduce freshwater extractions.
A wide range of issues is herein presented, related to the evaluation of irrigated agriculture impacts and management practices to reduce these impacts on the environment.
Contents
Preface
1 Comparing Water Performance by Two Different Surface Irrigation Methods
2 Watershed Monitoring for the Assessment of Irrigation Water Use and Irrigation Contamination
3 Pumice for Efficient Water Use in Greenhouse Tomato Production
4 Cyclic Irrigation for Reducing Nutrients and Suspended Solids Loadings from Paddy Fields in Japan
5 Urbanization, Water Quality Degradation and Irrigation for Agriculture in Nhue River Basin of Vietnam
6 Recycling Vertical-Flow Biofilter: A Treatment System for Agricultural Subsurface Tile Water
7 Water Regime Affecting the Soil and Plant Nitrogen Availability
8 The Response of Ornamental Plants to Saline Irrigation Water
9 Grey water Use in Irrigation: Characteristics, Advantages and Concerns
10 Risks for Human Health of Using Wastewater for Turf Grass Irrigation
11 Marginal Waters for Agriculture - Characteristics and Suitability Analysis of Treated Paper Mill Effluent
12 Occurrence and Survival of Pathogenic Microorganisms in Irrigation Water

Air Layering

Air layering is a way to propagate tall flowering trees and bushes that don't have branches that can touch the ground. It can be done any time of year, but is best done in early spring before the leaves appear or just after they come out.

From the book "Secrets of Plant Propagation" by Lewis Hill

Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering
Daya Publishing House | 2010 | ISBN: 8189729985 | 272 pages | PDF | 8 MB

Effective irrigation, enhanced pertinent technologies, thereby provides a most lucrative source for making agriculture profitable and worthwhile. This book has been written as a manual guiding agricultural engineers on the principles and concepts which define irrigation engineering. Elaborating upon the tools, technologies and techniques which are essential to the field, the text takes a look at the types of irrigation, including surface, localised and sprinkler systems, and how they are changing agriculture itself by making it more scientific. In addition to it the challenges faced by irrigation systems including those of entrophication, water pollution, depletion of underground aquifers, etc., are also discussed. Current trends and development have been analysed as well as the future prospects and opportunities.

Irrigation Management

Irrigation Management
CABI | 2010-03-25 | ISBN: 1845935160 | 392 pages | PDF | 3 MB

In many countries irrigated agriculture consumes a large proportion of the available water resources, often over 70% of the total. There is considerable pressure to release water for other uses, and as a sector irrigated agriculture will have to increase its efficiency and productivity of water use. Drawing on the author's 30 years of experience in some 28 countries, this book offers knowledge for the management of irrigation and drainage systems, including traditional technical areas of systems operation and maintenance, and expanding managerial, institutional and organizational aspects. Chapters provide guidelines to improve management, operation and maintenance processes, which move management thinking out of traditional public-sector mindsets to a more customer-focussed, performance-oriented service delivery. As a practical guide to improve efficiency and productivity in irrigated agriculture, this book will be essential reading for irrigation managers and technicians as well as students and policymakers in water management, agriculture and sustainable development.

All About Composting

Compost is a rich and crumbly blend of partially decomposed organic material that does wonderful things for your garden.

Building and maintaining a compost pile is the surest, easiest way to become a better gardener. Not only will you be producing the best possible food for your garden, but by watching leaves, eggshells, orange rinds, and grass clippings become transformed into rich compost filled with earthworms and other soil creatures, you'll be learning what healthy soil is all about.

Compost improves soil structure. Most gardeners don't start with great soil. Whether yours is hard and compacted, sandy, stony, heavy, or wet, adding compost will improve its texture, water-holding capacity, and fertility. Your soil will gradually become fluffy and brown—the ideal home for healthy plants.

Compost provides a balanced source of plant nutrients. Even if you are lucky enough to have great soil, you can't expect that soil to remain rich and productive without replenishing the nutrients that are consumed each growing season. No commercial fertilizer, even one that is totally organic, provides the full spectrum of nutrients that you get with compost. The nutrients are available gradually, as your plants need them, over a period of months or years. The microorganisms in the compost will also help your plants absorb nutrients from fertilizers more efficiently.

 

Compost stimulates beneficial organisms. Compost is teeming with all kinds of microorganisms and soil fauna that help convert soil nutrients into a form that can be readily absorbed by your plants. The microorganisms, enzymes, vitamins and natural antibiotics that are present in compost actually help prevent many soil pathogens from harming your plants. Earthworms, millipedes, and other macro-organisms tunnel through your soil, opening up passageways for air and water to reach your plants' roots.

Compost is garden insurance. Even very experienced gardeners often have soil that is less than perfect. Adding compost moderates pH and fertility problems, so you can concentrate on the pleasures of gardening, not the science of your soil’s chemical composition. Unlike organic or inorganic fertilizers, which need to be applied at the right time and in the right amount, compost can be applied at any time and in any amount. You can't really over-apply it. Plants use exactly what they need, when they need it.

Can a gardener ever have enough compost? It's doubtful. Compost is the perfect thing to spread around when you are creating a new garden, seeding a new lawn area, or planting a new tree. Compost can be sprinkled around plants during the growing season or used as a mulch in your perennial gardens. You can add compost to your flower boxes and deck planters. You can also use it to enrich the potting soil for your indoor plants.

How Compost Happens

Organic matter is transformed into compost through the work of microorganisms, soil fauna, enzymes and fungi. When making compost, your job is to provide the best possible environment for these beneficial organisms to do their work. If you do so, the decomposition process works very rapidly—sometimes in as little as two weeks. If you don't provide the optimum environment, decomposition will still happen, but it may take from several months to several years. The trick to making an abundance of compost in a short time is to balance the following four things:

Carbon. Carbon-rich materials are the energy food for microorganisms. You can identify high-carbon plant materials because they are dry, tough, or fibrous, and tan or brown in color. Examples are dry leaves, straw, rotted hay, sawdust, shredded paper, and cornstalks.

Nitrogen. High-nitrogen materials provide the protein-rich components that microorganisms require to grow and multiply. Freshly pulled weeds, fresh grass clippings, over-ripe fruits and vegetables, kitchen scraps and other moist green matter are the sorts of nitrogen-rich materials you'll probably have on hand. Other high-protein organic matter includes kelp meal, seaweed, manure and animal by-products like blood or bone meal.

Water. Moisture is very important for the composting process. But too much moisture will drown the microorganisms, and too little will dehydrate them. A general rule of thumb is to keep the material in your compost pile as moist as a well-wrung sponge. If you need to add water (unchlorinated is best), insert your garden hose into the middle of the pile in several places, or sprinkle the pile with water next time you turn it. Using an enclosed container or covering your pile with a tarp will make it easier to maintain the right moisture level.

Oxygen. To do their work most efficiently, microorganisms require a lot of oxygen. When your pile is first assembled, there will probably be plenty of air between the layers of materials. But as the microorganisms begin to work, they will start consuming oxygen. Unless you turn or in some way aerate your compost pile, they will run out of oxygen and become sluggish.

Do I Need a Recipe?

Sample Compost Recipes

Recipe 1

• 1 part fresh grass clippings
• 1 part dry leaves
• 1 part good garden soil

Spread the ingredients in 3-inch-deep layers to a height of 3 to 4 feet.

Recipe 2

• 2 parts fresh grass clippings
• 2 parts straw or spoiled hay
• 1 part good garden soil

Spread ingredients in 4-inch layers, adding water if needed.

Recipe 3

• 2 parts dry leaves
• 1 part fresh grass clippings
• 1 part food scraps

Spread ingredients in 4-inch layers, adding water if needed.

Microorganisms and other soil fauna work most efficiently when the ratio of carbon-rich to nitrogen-rich materials in your compost pile is approximately 25:1 (brown to green) but most people find three parts brown and one part green works quite well. In practical terms, if you want to have an active compost pile, you should include lots of high-carbon "brown" materials (such as straw, wood chips, or dry leaves) and a lesser amount of high-nitrogen "green" materials (such as grass clippings, freshly pulled weeds, or kitchen scraps).

If you have an excess of carbon-rich materials and not enough nitrogen-rich materials, your pile may take years to decompose (there is not enough protein for those microbes!). If your pile has too much nitrogen and not enough carbon, your pile will also decompose very slowly (not enough for the microbes to eat!), and it will probably be soggy and smelly along the way.

But don't worry about determining the exact carbon content of a material or achieving a precise 25:1 ratio. Composting doesn't need to be a competitive, goal-oriented task. All organic matter breaks down eventually, no matter what you do. If you simply use about 3 times as much "brown" materials as "green" materials, you'll be off to a great start. Take a look at the sample recipes and check the chart of common compost materials. With experience, you'll get a sense for what works best.

Compost Gets Hot

Common Compost Ingredients

Brown

High-carbon materials

• corncobs and stalks
• paper
• pine needles
• sawdust or wood shavings
• straw
• vegetable stalks
• dry leaves

Green

High-nitrogen materials

• coffee grounds
• eggshells
• fruit wastes
• grass clippings
• feathers or hair
• fresh leaves
• seaweed
• kitchen scraps
• fresh weeds
• rotted manure
• alfalfa meal

Ingredients to Spice Up Your Compost Pile

The following materials can be sprinkled onto your compost pile as you build each layer. They will add important nutrients and will help speed up the composting process:

• Super Hot Compost Starter, applied at the rate on the package.
• Garden soil or finished compost (high in microorganisms), 1/2 shovelful on each layer
• Bone meal, blood meal, or alfalfa meal (high in nitrogen), 1/2 shovelful on each layer
• Fish waste or manure (high in nitrogen), a shovelful on each layer
• Wood stove or fireplace ashes (high in potash and carbon), a shovelful on each layer
• Crushed rock dust (rich in minerals/feeds microbes), a shovelful on each layer

Heat is a by-product of intense microbial activity. It indicates that the microorganisms are munching on organic matter and converting it into finished compost. The temperature of your compost pile does not in itself affect the speed or efficiency of the decomposition process. But temperature does determine what types of microbes are active.

There are primarily three types of microbes that work to digest the materials in a compost pile. They each work best in a particular temperature range:

The psychrophiles work in cool temperatures—even as low as 28 degrees F. As they begin to digest some of the carbon-rich materials, they give off heat, which causes the temperature in the pile to rise. When the pile warms to 60 to 70 degrees F, mesophilic bacteria take over. They are responsible for the majority of the decomposition work. If the mesophiles have enough carbon, nitrogen, air, and water, they work so hard that they raise the temperature in the pile to about 100 degrees F. At this point, thermophilic bacteria kick in. It is these bacteria that can raise the temperature high enough to sterilize the compost and kill disease-causing organisms and weed seeds. Three to five days of 155 degrees F. is enough for the thermophiles to do their best work.

Getting your compost pile "hot" (140 to 160 degrees F.) is not critical, but it does mean that your compost will be finished and usable within a month or so. These high temperatures also kill most weed seeds, as well as harmful pathogens that can cause disease problems. Most people don't bother charting the temperature curve in their compost pile. They just try to get a good ratio of carbon to nitrogen, keep the pile moist and well aerated, and wait until everything looks pretty well broken down.

Commercial activators can help raise the temperature in your compost pile by providing a concentrated dose of microorganisms and protein. Other effective activators that can help to get your pile cooking include humus-rich soil, rotted manure, finished compost, dried blood, and alfalfa meal.

To Turn or Not to Turn

Unless speed is a priority, frequent turning is not necessary. Many people never turn their compost piles. The purpose of turning is to increase oxygen flow for the microorganisms, and to blend undecomposed materials into the center of the pile. If you are managing a hot pile, you'll probably want to turn your compost every 3 to 5 days, or when the interior temperature dips below about 110 degrees F. Monitor the temperature with acompost thermometer; use garden shovel, fork or acompost aerator to help turn the pile.

After turning, the pile should heat up again, as long as there is still undecomposed material to be broken down. When the temperature stays pretty constant no matter how much you turn the pile, your compost is probably ready. Though turning can speed the composting process, it also releases heat into the air, so you should turn your pile less frequently in cold weather.

There are several ways to help keep your pile well-aerated, without the hassle of turning:

• Build your pile on a raised wood platform or on a pile of branches.
• Make sure there are air vents in the sides of your compost bin.
• Put one or two perforated 4" plastic pipes in the center of your pile.

Worm Composting

Employing worms to make compost is called vermiculture. Manure worms, red worms, and branding worms (the small ones usually sold by commercial breeders) are dynamos when it comes to decomposing organic matter—especially kitchen scraps. The problem is that these worms cannot tolerate high temperatures. Add a handful of them to an active compost pile and they'll be dead in an hour. Field worms and night crawlers (common garden worms with one big band) are killed at even lower temperatures.

To maintain a separate worm bin for composting food scraps, you need a watertight container that can be kept somewhere that the temperature will remain between 50 and 80 degrees F. all year-round. Ready-made worm bins are available, but you can also make your own. Red worms are available by mail.

Types of Composters

Plastic Stationary Bins. These bins are for continuous rather than batch composting. Most units feature air vents along the sides and are made from recycled plastics, such as our Pyramid Composter. Look for a lid that fits securely, and doors to access finished compost. Size should be approximately 3 feet square.

Tumbling or Rotating Bins. These composters, such as our Dual-Batch Compost Tumbler, are for making batches of compost all at one time. You accumulate organic materials until you have enough to fill the bin, then load it up and rotate it every day or two. If materials are shredded before going into the bin, and you have plenty of nitrogen, you can have finished compost in five weeks or less.

Wire Bin. Use an 11-foot length of 2-inch x 4-inch x 36-inch welded, medium-gauge fence wire from your local hardware or building supply store. Tie the ends together to form your hoop. A bin this size holds just over one cubic yard of material. Snow fencing can be used in a similar fashion. Another option is our 3-Bin Wire Composter, which holds 48 cubic feet.

Trash Can Bin. To convert a plastic trash can into a composter, cut off the bottom with a saw. Drill about 24 quarter-inch holes in the sides of the can for good aeration. Bury the bottom of the can from several inches to a foot or more below the soil surface and press the loosened soil around the sides to secure it. Partially burying the composter will make it easier for microorganisms to enter the pile.

Block or Brick or Stone Bin. Lay the blocks, with or without mortar, leaving spaces between each block to permit aeration. Form three sides of a 3-to 4-foot square, roughly 3 to 4 feet high.

Wood Pallet Bin. Discarded wooden pallets from factories or stores can be stood upright to form a bin. Attach the corners with rope, wire, or chain. A fourth pallet can be used as a floor to increase air flow. A used carpet or tarp can be placed over the top of the pile to reduce moisture loss or keep out rain or snow.

Two- or Three-Bay Wood Bin. Having several bins allows you to use one section for storing materials, one for active composting, and one for curing or storing finished compost. Each bin should be approximately 3 x 3 x 3 feet. Be sure to allow air spaces between the sidewall slats, and make the front walls removable (lift out slats) for easy access. Lift-up lids are nice.

Understanding pH & Soil testing

You’ll often read or usually get an advice, but many of us do get the recommendation to check soil pH, but what does it really mean? Technically, pH is a gauge of the hydrogen-ion concentration in the soil, pH is simply a measure of how acid or alkaline a substance is, and soil acidity or alkalinity (soil pH) is important because it influences how easily plants can take up nutrients from the soil. Many organic/synthetic fertilizer manufacturers, plant sellers and many catalogs list the preferred pH for specific plants. The good news for gardeners is that, with a few exceptions, most plants will tolerate a fairly wide range of soil pH, which is measured on a scale of 1-14, with 7 as the neutral mark, anything below 7 considered acidic soils and anything above 7 considered alkaline soil. For the gardener’s needs, it is enough to know whether your soil is alkaline or acid because certain nutrients can only be accessed by plants when the soil pH falls into an acceptable range. Most plants prefer a somewhat neutral pH, anything from 6.2 to 7.0. However there are many plants that are more specific in their pH needs, such as blueberries which like a very acidic soil and a few others that prefer a more alkaline soil. As in layman language acid soils are often referred to as “sour” and alkaline soils “sweet”.

Nutrient uptake by roots and soil pH: Plant roots absorb mineral nutrients such as nitrogen and iron when they are dissolved in water. If the soil (the mixture of water and nutrients in the soil) is too acid or alkaline, some nutrients won’t dissolve easily, so they won’t be available for uptake by the roots. Which can cause the deficiency of nutrient in the plant and can cause normal growth and can affect the overall health of the plant. Most nutrients that plants need can dissolve easily when the pH of the soil solution ranges from 6.0 to 7.5. Below pH 6.0, some nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are less available. When the pH exceeds 7.5, iron, manganese, and phosphorus are less available.

pH Affects Nutrients, Minerals and Growth

The effect of soil pH is greater on the solubility of minerals or nutrients. Before a nutrient can be used by plants it must be dissolved in the soil solution. Most minerals and nutrients are more soluble or available in acid soils than in neutral or slightly alkaline soils. Phosphorus is never readily soluble in the soil but is most available in soil with a pH range centered around 6.5. Extremely and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of soluble aluminum, iron and manganese which may be toxic to the growth of some plants. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the most ready availability of plant nutrients. But some plants, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, blueberries, white potatoes and conifer trees, tolerate strong acid soils and grow well. Also, some plants do well only in slightly acid to moderately alkaline soils. However, a slightly alkaline (pH 7.4-7.8) or higher pH soil can cause a problem with the availability of iron to pin oak and a few other trees in Central New York causing chlorosis of the leaves which will put the tree under stress leading to tree decline and eventual mortality.

The soil pH can also influence plant growth by its effect on activity of beneficial microorganisms Bacteria that decompose soil organic matter are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents organic matter from breaking down, resulting in an accumulation of organic matter and the tie up of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, that are held in the organic matter.

Changes in Soil pH

Soils tend to become acidic as a result of:

1. Rainwater leaching away basic ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium).
2. Carbon dioxide from decomposing organic matter and root respiration dissolving in soil water to form a weak organic acid.
3. The formation of strong organic and inorganic acids, such as nitric and sulfuric acid, from decaying organic matter and oxidation of ammonium and sulfur fertilizers.
   Strongly acid soils are usually the result of the action of these strong organic and inorganic acids. Lime is usually added to acid soils to increase soil pH. The addition of lime not only replaces hydrogen ions and raises soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems associated with acid soils but it also provides two nutrients, calcium and magnesium to the soil. Lime also makes phosphorus that is added to the soil more available for plant growth and increases the availability of nitrogen by hastening the decomposition of organic matter. Liming materials are relatively inexpensive, comparatively mild to handle and leave no objectionable residues in the soil.
   

Some common liming materials are:

1. Calcic limestone which is ground limestone;
2. Dolomitic limestone from ground limestone high in magnesium; and
3. Miscellaneous sources such as wood ashes.

The amount of lime to apply to correct a soil acidity problem is affected by a number of factors, including soil pH, texture (amount of sand, silt and clay), structure, and amount of organic matter. In addition to soil variables the crops or plants to be grown influence the amount of lime needed.
In addition to monitoring soil pH the nutrient status of the soil should be examined.
Correcting acid soil: If your soil is too acid, you must add alkaline material, a process commonly called liming. The most common liming material is ground limestone.

There are two types: calcitic limestone (calcium carbonate) and dolomitic limestone (calcium-magnesium carbonate). In most instances, you’ll use calcitic lime. Apply dolomitic lime only if your soil also has a magnesium deficiency.

Ground limestone breaks down slowly in the soil. Apply it to the garden and lawn in the autumn to allow time for it to act on soil pH before the next growing season. A rule of thumb for slightly acidic soils is to apply 5 pounds of lime per 100 square feet to raise pH by one point. In general, sandy soils will need less limestone to change pH; clay soils will need more. The amount of lime you must add to correct pH depends not only on your soil type but also on its initial pH. For example, applying 5 pounds 464of limestone per 100 square feet will raise the pH of a sandy loam soil from 6.0 to 6.5. It would take 10 pounds per 100 square feet to make the same change in silty loam soil. However, if 5.6 was the initial pH of the soil, 8 pounds per 100 square feet would be required for the sandy loam soil, and 16 pounds per 100 square feet of the silty loam soil. There is no simple rule of thumb that applies to all soils. The safest approach to take if you plan to apply limestone is to have your soil tested and follow the lab recommendations. Applying wood ashes also will raise soil pH. Wood ashes contain up to 70 percent calcium carbonate, as well as potassium, phosphorus, and many trace minerals. Because it has a very fine particle size, wood ash is a fast-acting liming material. Use it with caution, because overplaying it can create serious soil imbalances. Limit applications to 11 kg’s per 1,000 square feet, and apply ashes only once every 2 to 3 years in any particular area. At this rate, your soil will get the benefits of the trace minerals without adverse effects on pH.

Correcting alkaline soil : Alkaline soils are usually found in chalky or limestone areas or where there’s builder’s rubble in the soil. Plant roots have difficulty penetrating alkaline soils (especially trees) due to the pockets of solid chalk or limestone rock. During dry periods, only a limited amount of water can be held and the soil becomes extremely dry due to the soil consistency. Once plants are established however, they can grow a deep root system allowing them to absorb the maximum amount of water.

Improve the Organic Content : There is a wide range of plants that you can grow in alkaline soil but if you want to grow even more species you’ll need to improve the organic content of the soil. To do this (after a period of rain) add large amounts of leaf mould, well-rotted manure or garden compost. Dried blood can also help improve the nutrient levels. Using a fork, break up the top layer of soil to help roots develop more easily before planting.

If your soil is too alkaline, add a source of acidity. The most common material to add is powdered elemental sulfur. As a rule of thumb, add 1 pound of sulfur per 100 square feet to lower pH 1 point. But as with lime, the correct amount will depend on your soil type and its initial pH. Testing your soil and following lab recommendations is the best approach if you want to lower the pH of an entire bed or an area of your yard. Mixing peat moss with the soil will also lower pH, but peat moss is not a sustainable resource and has been over harvested in many areas; incorporating ample organic matter (such as shredded leaves) is a more environmentally friendly option.

BENEFITS OF SOIL TESTING

Soil pH (Acidity Test): ­ If the soil is too acidic, aluminum is dissolved causing a specific ion toxicity. The plant growth is stunted and the leaf coloration is sometimes deep green. If the soil is too alkaline, some plant nutrients are unavailable causing a mineral deficiency. The source of these two problems can be the use of too much plant fertilizer of the incorrect type. A soil acidity (pH test) is required to know the soil acidity status. Managing alteration in soil acidity with choice of nitrogen fertilizers – Fertilizer products are not interchangeable. Each product has a particular advantage and benefit over other materials. Use of the incorrect product will exacerbate problems while the correct one will enhance growth. For instance with nitrogen products, ammonium sulfate (21-0-0) will acidify the soil; ammonium nitrate (34-0-0) will be pH neutral if not over applied; calcium nitrate (15.5-0-0) will slightly increase the soil pH; urea (46-0-0) needs to be hydrolyzed before it is available. Nitrate nitrogen will supply soil oxygen. Ammonium nitrogen consumes oxygen when it is nitrified to nitrate. Slow-release nitrogen materials also have certain benefits. Urea formaldehyde (38-0-0) release nitrogen according to temperature and biological activities

Presence of limestone :­ If limestone (calcium carbonate or chalk) is present, acid-loving plants become iron deficient unless corrective measures are taken.

Lime Requirement:­ In areas of high rainfall, there are inadequate levels of potassium, calcium and/or magnesium due to the acidic soil. Tests for the required level of limestone or dolomite needed to raise the soil pH to a safe level are essential.
Excess Salts in the Soil: ­ If salts excessively accumulate in the soil, many plants are unable to use the moisture in the soil and may have a toxicity of sodium and/or chloride. A salinity test ( the term used by laboratories is salinity) is required to determine if this is a problem. The salinity can be controlled by leaching unless soils have drainage problems. A soil high in salinity is called “saline.”

Excessive Sodium:­ Excessive sodium or a “sodic” soil most often has an elevated pH level. Soils high in pH values are suspect. Sodium can cause toxicity, but the more likely problem is soil compaction and poor drainage caused by the reaction of sodium on the clay.

Gypsum Requirement ­: Excessive sodium can be corrected with the addition of gypsum. Another cause of high pH values is the presence of bicarbonates. Gypsum is also used to precipitate the excessive bicarbonates and lower the very high soil pH values. A soil test shows how much gypsum is needed.

Fertility : Most plants require at least 16 nutrients. Three nutrients are supplied by the water and by the air (oxygen, hydrogen and carbon). Thirteen is mineral nutrients. If anyone is too low, the plants will not grow. In some cases, too much fertilizer has been applied causing an adverse reaction. Overdose of phosphorus, for instance, inhibits the plant uptake of iron, manganese, zinc and copper causing induced deficiencies. The best method to determine if a problem is caused by a true deficiency or is an induced deficiency is soil testing. Soil analysis is used to assess the nutrient levels of the soil. Plant tissue testing is also used to ascertain which nutrients have reduced availability in the soil.
Toxicity ­: Soils may contain toxic metals. They either exist in the soil naturally or have been introduced as contaminants in amendments. Mined minerals and waste products are the frequent contaminant sources. These elements prevent plant growth. If a vegetable garden is to be grown and if the presence of heavy metals is suspected, the soil should be tested as a precaution for human poisoning. Lead can be present in urban soil at levels which do not injure plants but can accumulate in produce at levels which may harm humans. Excess levels of selenium and molybdenum are problems with wildlife or cattle. Other common toxic elements are aluminum, cadmium, chromium, nickel, arsenic, silver, and vanadium.

Soil Compaction :­ Excessive compaction impedes root growth, impairs water penetration and reduces soil aeration. Reduced aeration hinders the absorption of nutrients. In addition, slow water penetration exasperates the problem. Soil compaction can be measured and corrected with soil conditioners. Their need can be detected by soil testing.